Media Policy Glossary

Basic Terms and Concepts

Airwaves - refers to the electromagnetic spectrum that transmits radio, TV, wireless and other signals. Non-technical term.

Analog Signal - a variable signal that is continuous both in time and amplitude (the voltage or waveform of the signal). A voltage, frequency, currency or charge. Analog signals have random fluctuations over time and distance that create noise that interferes and distorts the signal, a disadvantage absent in its counterpart, digital signal. For a further discussion, click here.

Blog - short for Weblog, a blog is a regularly posted journal entry that is publicly accessible via the Web. Writers of blogs are known as bloggers, and the writing itself is known as blogging. Blogs were first noticed on the Web as the public journals of teenagers, but are now considered a viable format for journalists, consultants, and writers of all kinds.

Broadband - any telecommunications technology capable of carrying multiple channels of data (such as voice and digital information) over a single medium. Examples include DSL, cable, high-speed wireless, satellite, and fiber optics. Click for more.

Broadcast License - regulated and issued by the U.S. government, which permits individuals and corporations over a limited amount of time the use of the airwaves for broadcasting radio and television. License applications are reviewed and granted by the Federal Communications CommissionRadio Act of 1927, amended over the years to limit the number of radio (and later, TV) stations a single entity could own in a single market. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 loosened ownership regulations and increased the number of stations in a single market an entity or individual can own. It also permitted cross-ownership of media outlets (radio, TV, and newspapers) in a single market, helping to spur the concentration of media ownership in which the majority of newspapers, radio stations and television stations are owned by fewer than a half-dozen large corporations. Click for more. (FCC). The US government began licensing the airwaves under the

Clear Channel - a publicly traded media company based in San Antonio, Texas that owns more than 1,200 high-power AM and FM radio stations and more than 30 television stations in the United States, as well as media outlets in other countries. Founded in 1972 by Lowry Mays and Red McCombs, the company also earns significant revenues owning and managing live, large-venue events like music concerts, and outdoor advertising (such as billboards and taxi tops). Its rapid growth--following passage of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, which allowed a single entity to own more stations in a single market than before -- put Clear Channel at the center of the controversy over media concentration and the monopolization of the airwaves. The company employed about 64,000 people and had revenues in 2004 of $9.34 billion. Click for more.

Commons - a place, real or virtual, that is not privately owned. Natural commons include the oceans and the atmosphere. Information commons hold the shared history of our cultures—myths, folksongs, works of art. The resources of the information commons are unique because, unlike resources in a physical commons, ideas can't be depleted, polluted, or despoiled. For a more in-depth discussion, start with David Bollier's "Reclaiming the Commons." The Tomales Bay Institute is another organization exploring notions of the commons in relation to American politics and policy.

Copyright - a personal monopoly on an original writing, song, piece of art, or a group of any of those, for 70 years after the death of the creator or 75-95 years in the case of a corporation. Click for more.

Copyright Clearance - formal permission granted to reproduce and disseminate creative works that are protected by copyright.

Creative Commons (CC) - a non-profit organization dedicated to reforming copyright laws to permit the free use, alteration and distribution by others of copyrighted creative works, such as music, film or software. Founded in San Francisco in 2001 by Stanford Law School Professor Lawrence Lessigwebsite allow copyright holders to release some of their rights to the public domain and post their creative works on the web for free access by others. Lessig's blog is a rich resource for current news on media policy and activism, addressing issues of fair use, copyright law, intellectual property and expanding the public commons. to counter what he terms the increasingly pervasive permission culture, in which the sharing of information is restricted to those that can pay for it, the CC and its

Derivative Works - a new work that incorporates elements of an already existing work. Adaptations, translations, and modifications can all be derivative works. The new work as a whole can be copyrighted, but only those aspects that are not a part of the original are protected. Click for more.

Digital Signal - the counterpart to the analog signal, a digital signal is a discrete sequence of data that is quantized, consisting of integers, usually represented by binary numbers (0, 1), and measured in bits. Most electronics, including the Internet and mobile phone communications, are a network of digital signals. An analog signal can be transformed into a digital signal, and vice versa. Click for more.

Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) - a 1998 amendment to title 17 of the U.S. Code, the act protects copyright and heightens penalties for copyright infringement on the Internet by criminalizing the production and use of technology designed to violate copyright laws. The act also limits the liability of online providers from copyright infringement by their users. Read more.

Digital Television (DTV) - employs digital modulation and compression to broadcast video, audio and data signals to television sets. Read More.

Fair Use - an exemption to copyright infringement laws intended to protect free speech and the common-sense use of copyrighted material for such purposes as journalistic commentary, research, and education. Examples of fair use include excerpted portions of a copyrighted newspaper article, film, or book in another work, such as critical commentary; quoted sources in a research paper; or recording a television show for later viewing. Read more.

Federal Communications Commission (FCC) - an independent federal agency that manages all frequencies not reserved for military and other federal government purposes. The FCC both allocates frequencies for specific purposes (radio, TV, cell phones) and assigns licenses to companies and other users. For more, go to the FCC's website.

File Sharing - the practice of making files, most commonly music and film, available on the Internet or from peer-to-peer networks in which individual users in a computing network can both download and upload files for sharing with others. Read more.

General Public License (GPL) - a popular license for free software. The GPL allows users the freedom to run the software program for any purpose, modify or copy the program, and disseminate modified versions of the program. A list of free software can be found at the Free Software Foundation's website.

Global Positioning System (GPS) - a highly accurate navigation system controlled by a network of satellites that is used to determine precise locations and time references at nearly any point on the globe. The system was designed by the US Department of Defense, which launched its first GPS satellite in 1978, and is today managed by the US Air Force. The system, which has both military and civilian uses, can be used free of charge by anyone with a GPS receiver.

Incumbents - in telecommunications, companies or individuals that hold FCC licenses to deliver commercial telecommunications services. Incumbents include radio and television broadcasters, phone companies, and cable providers. In spectrum auctions, incumbents are those bidders that already hold FCC licenses.

Intellectual Property (IP) - the granting of property rights to intangible subject matter in which the holder has exclusive control by law over its use or reproduction. A copyright, trademark, patent, trade secret and industrial design right are all examples of legal protections of intellectual property. One area of controversy in IP law is the granting of exclusive rights.Read more.

Linux - an open source computer operating system whose underlying source code, unlike proprietary operating systems, is accessible for free in the public domain and can be modified and distributed without penalty by any user. (See GPL.) Originally developed by Linus Torvalds in 1991 for Intel processors, the architecture is now available for all computing platforms and is popular for its reliability and user-friendly installation and upgrades. Read more.

Low Power FM (LPFM) - small radio stations that are authorized for noncommercial educational broadcasting only. They operate with an effective radiated power of 100 watts or less, giving them a range of 3.5 miles. Also known as community radio. Read more. The National Federation of Community Broadcasters also has resources on how to start your own LPFM station. For additional information visit the Prometheus Radio Project at http://www.prometheusradio.org

Mechanical Payments - also, 'mechanical royalties,' usually applying to music, of income derived from the number of reproductions made of a creative work that is copyrighted, with proceeds paid to the owner(s) of the copyright.

Media Concentration - the domination of ownership of media properties by a few large corporate conglomerates. Presently, just six companies own more than 90 percent of the media market: Viacom, General Electric, Bertelsmann, News Corp, Time Warner and Disney. Also termed 'media consolidation,' the growth of large media corporations was spurred by the Telecommunications Act of 1996, which loosened ownership regulations. Read more.

Media Ownership - applies generally to the debate over media ownership regulations, media concentration and the public commons.

Media Policy - laws, rules, regulations and guidelines governing the allocation, use and ownership of the electromagnetic spectrum and how they relate to the public good.

Mesh Networks - a wireless network that adds capacity as more users join the network by repeating and re-routing signals among users. Read more.

MP3 - a popular digital audio encoding that commonly refers to compressed sound or music files that downloaded into computers and portable audio players.

Open Source - a method of production of a product, most commonly software, in which the sources of that product are transparent. The phrase was popularized in the late 1990s by software developers to describe a collaborative process in which both creators and users understand how a software program works, and can freely alter and disseminate it to others' the same type of collaborative effort that created the Internet. Not to be confused with free software. Click for more.

Patent - a form of personal property that provides the owner with the right, for a period of 20 years from the date of filing, to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering for sale, or importing into the United States the invention described in the patent claims.

Peer-to-peer network (P2P) - a computer network of users that rely on their own computing power and bandwidth, rather than that of a central server, to exchange files with each other (see file sharing). In contrast to the standard client-server model, P2P employs ad hoc connections among 'nodes' (computing devices) that act as both clients and servers, providing their own bandwidth, storage space and computing power, so that the network's capacity increases as more users join it. P2P technology is used to share digital files of video, audio and telephonic content, most commonly music and film that are copyrighted works- a practice in violation of US copyright laws that carries criminal penalties. Read more.

Piracy - the unauthorized duplication and dissemination for sale of copyrighted materials. In broadcasting, any transmission of copyrighted material without the copyright holder's permission.

Pirate Radio - in general, the operation of a radio station without a license, a violation of US law. Most pirate radio activity occurs on low-frequency radio bands (shortwave) but can also include AM and FM. Read more.

Podcasting - refers to the syndication of audio or video files via the Internet to individual subscribers. A podcast is distinct from audio or video files that are downloaded or streamed because the subscription provides new content that is automatically delivered via RSS feeds. The term "podcast" was coined because users would transfer these files to portable audio players such as Apple's iPod.

Public Domain - a space where intellectual property protection does not apply and where no person or entity has proprietary rights to a body of knowledge or creation. When copyrights and patents expire, innovations and creative works revert to the public domain. Once there, anyone can use the material without permission and without paying a licensing fee. As the principal repository of humanity's shared cultural, scientific, and creative heritage, the public domain is the catalyst and wellspring for creativity and innovation. Read more.

Public Interest Obligation - FCC regulations, mandated by Congress, that require broadcast license holders to provide content and programming that serves the public interest, convenience and necessity. In the past, broadcasters were required to air a certain number of hours per week of educational and children's programming. Deregulation in recent years has weakened or eliminated many of these requirements.

Remix - an audio-edited version of a song that is incorporated into another song that builds on the themes of the original song as well as incorporates new elements. Rooted in reggae music of the 1960s, remixing began to grow in popularity in the late 1970s and today is a dominant musical technique in dance, rap and hip-hop music. (See also sampling.)

Right to Communicate (UN Charter) - the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights of the United Nations adopted communication as a basic human right, as stated in Article 19: "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression: this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers." The charter also includes as human rights the free participation "in the cultural life of the community," and to share and benefit from scientific advancements. Article 19 underlays the concept of a public commons.

RSS - short for Really Simple Syndication, allows Internet users to subscribe to Websites with RSS feeds and receive automatically updated information such as news headlines, blogs, or events listings.

Sample - a brief audio excerpt of a song that is used an 'instrument' or thematic element in other compositions. Sampling is a common technique in electronic, dance, rap, hip hop and reggae music. Click for more. (See also Remix.)

Smartcard - resembling a credit card, a smartcard contains an embedded microprocessor carrying specific data. In broadcasting, smart cards are commonly used for wireless and satellite TV applications, such as SIM cards for mobile phones and authorization cards for pay TV. The technology was invented in the early 1970s. Click for more.

Spectrum - shorthand for radio frequency spectrum, the part of the electromagnetic spectrum whose physical properties are most amenable to electronic communication. Commonly known as "the airwaves." Read more.

Spectrum Auctions - the sale first-time licenses of the electromagnetic spectrum by the federal government to qualified bidders, either corporations or individuals. The FCC instituted the auctions in 1994, under the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act, passed by Congress in 1993. Previously, the FCC mainly relied on hearings and lotteries to select licensees. The auction approach is intended to award the licenses to those who will use them most effectively, and to reduce the time from application to award. See the FCC's website.

Spectrum Licenses - FCC licenses granting companies and individuals exclusive, renewable rights to use discrete parts of the airwaves for television and radio broadcasting, as well as wireless telecommunications. Licenses are generally put out for bid in spectrum auctions for interested parties. (See also Broadcast License.)

Telecommunications Act of 1996 - signed by President Bill Clinton on February 8, 1996, the Act was the first major overhaul of FCC regulations since the Communications Act of 1934. The Act governs cable and satellite operators, TV and radio broadcasters, wireless telephone companies and other telecommunications concerns. The act deregulated the industry to allow companies in the various media sectors to compete against each other, lifted certain restrictions to permit ownership of various media properties in a single market and increased the number of media outlets a single entity can own in the same market. Read more.

Universal Service - according to the FCC: "The goals of Universal Service, as mandated by the 1996 Act, are to promote the availability of quality services at just, reasonable, and affordable rates; increase access to advanced telecommunications services throughout the Nation; advance the availability of such services to all consumers, including those in low income, rural, insular, and high cost areas at rates that are reasonably comparable to those charged in urban areas. In addition, the 1996 Act states that all providers of telecommunications services should contribute to Federal universal service in some equitable and nondiscriminatory manner; there should be specific, predictable, and sufficient Federal and State mechanisms to preserve and advance universal service; all schools, classrooms, health care providers, and libraries should, generally, have access to advanced telecommunications services; and finally, that the Federal-State Joint Board and the Commission should determine those other principles that, consistent with the 1996 Act, are necessary to protect the public interest."

Unlicensed Spectrum - slices of the airwaves set aside for anyone to use. This public park is home to over 300 different types of consumer devices: microwave ovens, cordless phones, and wireless networks. The FCC periodically releases portions of low-bandwidth spectrum to unlicensed providers to stimulate growth and technological advances of telecommunications services.

Wi-Fi - short for wireless fidelity, Wi-Fi is a set of technological protocols that allow digital devices to send and receive information over a high-speed data network using unlicensed spectrum - but at low power and with limited range. Read more,

Wireless Network - telephone or computer networks that use radio frequencies or spectrum as their carrier. Wireless networks are commonly referred to as Wi-Fi. Municipal wireless refers to networks that are owned by city government. Community wireless networks are owned and operated by neighborhood groups, organizations, universities, or any entity that sets up Wireless LAN (local area network). Wireless networks have proven to be a low cost alternative to copper wire networks and other expensive infrastructures for providing telephone and Internet service. See the Community Wireless website (http://www.communitywireless.org/)

Sources: Public Knowledge, "A Beginner Guide to the Key Concepts"http://www.publicknowledge.org/resources/introductions); Federal Communications Commission (www.fcc.gov); New America Foundation (www.newamerica.net); and Wikipedia (http://www.wikipedia.org).